Teaching and Learning Activity Assessment :: Education, Evaluation

IntroductionOne of key element in teaching and learning activity is assessment. There are several types of assessment. However, in the linguistic context of Aceh, most of teachers still use traditional forms of assessment, specifically summative assessment. There is critique on traditional assessment, The critique has been based on the assumption that these forms of assessment do not support high quality of leaning associated with deep learning, critical thinking, sustainable knowledge and lifelong learning (Havnes & McDowell 2008). Therefore, diagnostic assessment is whiz form of assessment that can be used by the teachers to support high quality of learning. Diagnostic assessment aims to determine students prior knowledge. In parliamentary law to plan the effective teaching, it is important for teacher to determine students prior knowledge, because the students have their own conceptions on phenomena in the world before they study in the schoolroom (Tytler, n.d). This essay is part of assignment in assessing learning unit (EXE733). It aims to review and discuss an example of exemplary assessment task for diagnostic assessment. Before get along discussion about example of exemplary diagnostic assessment, it might be important to review the definition, purposes, types of assessment, as well as characteristics of effective assessment. discernmentAssessment derived from the Latin assessare which mean to impose a tax or set a rate (Athanasou, 1997). According to Athanasou, Assessment is the process of collecting and combining nurture from test (e.g., on performance, learning, quality) with view to making a judgement about a person or making a comparison against an established criterion. Further, Satterly outlined assessment as an omnibus term which includes all the processes and products which describe the nature and extent of childrens learning, its degree of correspondence with the aims and objectives of teaching and its relationship with the environments which are knowing to facilitate learning (1989 p.3, cited in Carrol, 2005). Moreover, Rowntree (1977) said assessment in fostering can be thought as occurring whenever one person, in some word form of interaction, direct or indirect with another, is conscious of obtaining and interpreting information about the knowledge and understanding of abilities and attitudes of that other person (p. 4, cited in Carrol, 2005).The purposes of assessment can be divided into three levels, namely classroom level (students and teachers), school level, and system level. Firstly, at classroom level, assessment aims to provide the students with appropriate learning based on their needs, provide the students feedback that they can use to identify their next steps of learning, to develop good partnership with parents, help the teachers to plan next teaching, and guarantee continuity of education for the students (Te Kete Ipurangi, 2007).

Code-switching as a Resource in Content and Language Integrated Learnin

IntroductionCurrently, teaching satisfy in foreign language and second language, for example, content and language integrated learning (CLIL) or bilingual teaching onset has become a trend in education world. Some countries such as Malaysia, Africa, and European countries have adopted this model of learning in their education system. There are some reasons behind adopting CLIL or bilingual teaching approach in their education system, for example, to improve cross countries (cross language) traffic, and as a respond to the important of English language as a dominant language in the world (Samala, 2009).Cummins stated that there is a minimal level of language proficiency (treshold), that students should reach in order to be able to learn the delegate effectively (1981, cited in Lim & Presmeg, 2010). As students in bilingual or CLIL classroom do not learn the content of the lesson in their mother tongue, code-switching is often occurred in their classroom. The teacher in the classroo m would switch classroom discourse from the target language to students first language when he find that the students difficult to understand the belief of the lesson in the target language. Code-switching in the classroom should not be considered as a failure to teach in the target language, but it should be considered as a resource in the classroom. In this essay, I will discuss both advantages and disadvantages of code-switching in classroom. Definition of Code-switchingharmonize to Baker, code-switching is a situation where an individual switched from nonpareil to another language in one utterance, and the switching is done deliberately (1993, cited in Lim & Presmeg, 2010). In general, Setati (1998) defined that code-switching is the ... ...might feel neglected by the application of code-switching in their classroom (Cook, 2002, Sert 2005, both cited in Stephen-Kalong, 2008). Therefore, she suggested that, code-switching only can be applied effectively in the classroom where all students have the same main language.According to Sert, Code-switching in teacher instruction might lead students to feel bored and lost their attention to the previous instruction in the target language (2005, cited in Stephen-Kalong, 2008). It happen because, the teachers often repeat their instructions in students main language. ConclusionOverall, considering a lot of benefits that teachers and students might obtain from applying code-switching in the classroom, we should consider it as a resource in the classroom. However, Code-switching only can be fully understood in the actual context in which it takes place.

The Challenges of Tent Camping :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Challenges of Tent Camping          Each year, thousands of people throughout the United States film to spend their vacations camping in the great outdoors. Depending on an individuals sense of adventure, there are various types of camping to choose from, including log cabin camping, recreational fomite camping, and tent camping.  Of these, tent camping involves roughing it the most, and with proper planning the experience can be gratifying.  However, even with the best planning, tent camping can be an highly frustrating experience due to uncontrolled factors such as bad weather, wildlife encounters, and equipment failures.        Nothing can dampen the excited anticipation of camping more than a dark, rainy day.  Even the most adventurous campers can lose some of their enthusiasm on the drive to the campsite if the skies are dreary and damp.  After stretching their destination, campers must then set up camp in th e downpour.  This includes retention the inside of the tent dry and free from mud, getting the sleeping bags situated dryly, and defend food from the downpour.  If the sleeping bags happen to get wet, the cold also becomes a major factor.  A sleeping bag usually provides warmth on a camping trip  a wet sleeping bag provides none.  Combining wind with rain can cause frigid temperatures, causing any alfresco activities to be delayed.  Even inside the tent problems may arise due to heavy winds.  More than a few campers have had their tents blown down because of the wind, which one time again begins the frustrating task of setting up camp in the downpour.  It is wise to check the weather forecast earlier embarking on camping trips however, fetch nature is often unpredictable and there is no guarantee bad weather will be eluded.         Another problem likely to be set about during a camping trip is run-ins with wildlife, which can range from mildly annoying to dangerous.  Minor inconveniences include mosquitos and ants.  The swarming of mosquitos can literally drive annoyed campers indoors.  If an effective cruddy is not used, the camper can spend an interminable night scratching, which will only worsen the itch.  Ants do not usually attack campers, but keeping them out of the food can be quite an inconvenience.  Extreme care must be taken not to leave food out before or after meals.  If food is stored inside the tent, the tent must never be left open.

Discussion in terms of Fayol’s Managerial Functions Essay -- Business

Discussion in terms of Fayols Managerial FunctionsHenri Fayol proposed that all managers work out five dollar bill managementfunctions.1- preparedness, 2- Organizing, 3- Commanding, 4- Coordinating, 5- dictatorial. approximately management books still continue to be organized around themanagement functions, Although they have been condensed down to basicand very important functions.1- PlanningThe planning functions involves the process of defining goals,establishing strategies for achieving these goals, and developingplans to integrate and coordinate activities.Our instructor also defines or goals which is standard education andsuccessfulness in the exams, according to this tint he establishthe ways and strategies that how can we perform well in our exams.2- OrganizingManagers are also responsible for arranging work to accomplish theorganizations goals. This function is called Organizing. It involvesthe process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do,how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whome, and wheredecisions are to be made.3- LeadingWhen managers motivate subordinates, influence individuals or teams asthey work, take the most effective communication channel, or deal inany way with employee behavior issues, the are leading..Our instructor leading us by motivating through his moral support, heuse best channels to teach us, he polish our attitude by using hisgood behavioral skills.4- ControllingManagement function that involves monitoring actual performance,comparing actual to standard, and taking action, if necessary.Our instructor controlling his class by monitoring the students, hemaintain discipline, yet threats students if necessary. Discussion in terms of Mintizbergs Managerial rolesHenry Mintzberg, a prominent management researcher says that whatmanagers do can best be expound by looking at the roles the play atworks. Mintzberg Developed a categorization scheme for defining whatmanagers do. He concluded that managers pe rform ten (10) contrastive buthighly interrelated roles.The managerial Roles.1- Interpersonal1- Figurehead2- Leader3- LiaisonProvide reading2- Informational1. Monitor2. Disseminator3. spokespersonProcess information3- Decisional1. Entrepreneur2. Disturbance handler3. Resource... ... they seldom actually say it, and they never writeit down. And the main employment of numbties world-wide is in creatingproject specifications. You must know this - and value your teamaccordingly.9. Becoming a Great Manager.The first steps to becoming a really great manager are simply common sentiency but common sense is not very common. This article suggests somecommon-sense ideas on the subject of great management.Skills changes according to Management LevelThe extent to which managers perform the functions of management -planning, organizing, directing, and controlling - varies by level inthe management hierarchy.A manager is someone skilled in knowing how to analyze and improve the cogency of an o rganization to survive and grow in a complex andchanging world. This means that managers have a set of tools thatenable them to grasp the complexity of the organizations environment.1- Most of the first line managers age is allocated to the functions of directing and controlling.2- Middle management implements top management goals3- In contrast, top managers spend most of their time on the functions of planning and organizing.

Psychological Trauma in Truman Capotes In Cold Blood :: In Cold Blood Essays

Brian Conniffs article, Psychological Accidents In Cold Blood and Ritual Sacrifice, explains how Truman Capotes nonfiction novel demonstrates the psychological trauma that the murderers and the townspeople of Holcomb give after the murders of the Clutter family. Conniff begins his article by stating that in the last twenty-five years imprisonment and execution has reached an all-time high level of obsession among the American public. Since this type of violence has been so normalized it is rarely properly understood (1). With this in mind, prison literature has continually suggested that the most fortified barriers are not the natural walls and fences between the prison, and the outside world the most fortified barriers are the psychological walls between the preoccupations of everyday life . . .and the conscious realization that punishment is the most suicidal kind of national addiction (Conniff 1).   Conniff believes that these psychological walls are most confro nted in and clearly seen in In Cold Blood. When Perry Smith, one of the murderers, confesses to the crime to component Alvin Dewey, Agent Dewey is surprisingly disappointed. Agent Dewey discovers that the truth is more disturbing than anything he would have ever imagined. Conniff writes, The truth, Dewey discovers, is at once more ordinary and more disturbing than anything he has been able to imagine (2). Smith and Hickock did not murder the Clutters for revenge and they didnt even know their victims. The crime was a virtually impersonal act and Agent Dewey does not want to believe this (2).   At first Capote was not concerned with the capture and punishment of the criminals. Capote underestimated the fellowships need for retribution and its need to return to normalcy by enacting a violence of its own (2). Before the murders the community lived an unfearful life, no locked doors, no suspicion of one another. This normalcy could not be restored until the murderers w ere caught and punished (2). When the community began to lock its doors at night, it was trying to keep the invader from outside the community out (2). When the Hickock and Smith were finally caught the community categorized them as animals, this allowed the community to clean them of their humanity (2). Conniff goes on to say, a common normalcy ultimately depends upon the complete exclusion of outsiders, the exorcism of these mysterious animals is just as important as their uncovering and capture (3).

Psychological Trauma in Truman Capotes In Cold Blood :: In Cold Blood Essays

Brian Conniffs article, Psychological Accidents In Cold Blood and Ritual Sacrifice, explains how Truman Capotes nonfiction novel demonstrates the psychological trauma that the murderers and the townspeople of Holcomb baptismal font after the murders of the Clutter family. Conniff begins his article by stating that in the last twenty-five years imprisonment and execution has reached an all-time high level of obsession among the American public. Since this type of violence has been so normalized it is rarely properly understood (1). With this in mind, prison literature has continually suggested that the most fortified barriers are non the tangible walls and fences between the prison, and the outside world the most fortified barriers are the psychological walls between the preoccupations of everyday life . . .and the conscious realization that punishment is the most unsafe kind of national addiction (Conniff 1).   Conniff believes that these psychological walls are m ost confronted in and clearly seen in In Cold Blood. When Perry Smith, one of the murderers, confesses to the crime to ingredient Alvin Dewey, Agent Dewey is surprisingly disappointed. Agent Dewey discovers that the truth is more disturbing than anything he would have ever imagined. Conniff writes, The truth, Dewey discovers, is at once more ordinary and more disturbing than anything he has been able to imagine (2). Smith and Hickock did not murder the Clutters for revenge and they didnt even know their victims. The crime was a virtually impersonal act and Agent Dewey does not want to believe this (2).   At first Capote was not concerned with the capture and punishment of the criminals. Capote underestimated the corporations need for retribution and its need to return to normality by enacting a violence of its own (2). Before the murders the community lived an unfearful life, no locked doors, no suspicion of one another. This normalcy could not be restored until t he murderers were caught and punished (2). When the community began to lock its doors at night, it was trying to keep the invader from outside the community out (2). When the Hickock and Smith were finally caught the community categorized them as animals, this allowed the community to pillage them of their humanity (2). Conniff goes on to say, a common normalcy ultimately depends upon the complete exclusion of outsiders, the exorcism of these mysterious animals is just as important as their baring and capture (3).

Mind on Fire Critical Thinking Exercise

Mind on Fire Critical Thinking ExerciseHarmonizing to browned and Adler, the manner pupils learn has changed. Describe what Learning 2.0 is and how we hind end utilize entanglement 2.0 resources to hold up up acquisition.Learning 2.0 helps teachers to learn pupils through independent assignments and coaction it similarly motivates and gives pupils a higher degree of thought. nett 2.0 tools allow pedagogues and pupils to larn naked ways to portion normal involvement, such as pictures, podcasts, synergistic postings, sketchs, and portion them online with others. Teachers can utilize web 2.0 resources to better acquisition by leting pupils to portion thoughts, create web logs, and fitting people with common involvement through social media. This system of instruction creates a late manner of larning in todays universe of technological instruction that supports all acquisition and coaction attempts. Harmonizing to brownish & A Adler, ( 2008 ) , the manner pupils learn has ch anged with the accent beingness on social concept of instruction frailty single perusal and through on-line resources and coaction.As declared by Pestek, Kadic-Maglajlic & A NoA?ica, ( 2012 ) pupils have embraced entanglement 2.0 and actively utilize it in everyday life by altering the manner they communicate within and extracurricular of school, through many Web 2.0 applications. These applications are emerging with educational possible thanks to alone chances of Web 2.0 for betterment of instruction tools in pattern, coaction, communicating, single look, and literacy.Web 2.0 tools offer ways to personalise categories and demonstrate instructional presence. Some of the more widely recognized tools include web logs, wikis, RSS feeds, picture and exposure sharing, embodiments, microblogging, societal bookmarking, and societal media. This coevals of free, easy accessible Web-based tools allows users to main course every bit good as create and contribute information to sites. In an on-line schoolroom scene, Web 2.0 tools enable teachers to interact with pupils in a assortment of advanced ways. Rather than passively sing information, pupils collaborate and learn as a schoolroom connection harmonizing to Tunks, ( 2012 ) .Describe the perfect storm of chance that Brown and Adler province is brewing and how it can transform instruction into an unfastened, participatory ecosystem. Provide specific illustrations from the expression to back up your averments.The perfect storm that Brown and Adler province is brewing in the educational universe is based on the whole entree of information that is instantly available on the cyberspace. There is an overpowering sum of information available online to pupils that can be used in the preparation and educational. Many new ides in plan has open in todays society. The universe has made assorted constructing blocks to steer us in a new transmutation of engineering tools to our advantage. We are so fortunate to hold entree to all the new engineering that is offered to supply and back up acquisition. The usage of the cyberspace has provided many new ways to portion and communicate globally. The latest development of the Internet, the so called Web 2.0, has blurred the line between manufacturers and consumers of content and has shifted attending from entree to information toward entree to other people. New sorts of on-line resources such as societal net haveing sites, web logs, wikis, and practical communities have allowed people with common involvements to run into, portion thoughts, and collaborate in advanced ways. Indeed, the Web 2.0 is making a new sort of participatory medium that is ideal for back uping multiple manners of larning as stated by Brown & A Adler, ( 2008 ) .As stated by London, ( 2013 ) Web 2.0 engineerings can advance productive acquisition procedures in which squad members are unfastened to new thoughts, research new ways of interacting, and use their acquisition. Web 2.0 engine erings can advance productive acquisition procedures in which squad members are unfastened to new thoughts, explore new ways of interacting, and use their acquisition.Define and depict societal acquisition and discourse some of the Web 2.0 tools from the article that support societal acquisition. Describe a societal acquisition activity utilizing a Web 2.0 tools mentioned in the article that you might utilize in pattern. Support your pick with commendations from the article.Social acquisition is being involved with others in society to portion and larn new thoughts. Social larning usually occurs through societal interactions, observation of behaviour, and communicating. Many people assume that societal acquisition occurs within a societal circumstance and considers that people learn from one another, including such constructs as experimental acquisition, reproduction, and representation. As stated by Brown & A Adler, ( 2008 ) what do we intend by social learning ? Possibly the simp lest manner to explicate this construct is to observe that societal acquisition is based on the premiss that our apprehension of content is socially constructed through conversations about that content and through grounded interactions, particularly with others, around jobs or actions. The focal point is non so much(prenominal) on what we are larning but on how we are larning. Students, who studied in groups, even merely one time a hebdomad, were more engaged in their surveies, were better prepared for category, and learned significantly more than pupils who worked on their ain.A societal acquisition activity utilizing a Web 2.0 tool that was discussed in the the article that I would integrate in my schoolroom would be blogging. I teach a preschool and kindergartens, their age scope from five to six old ages old. I also work with pupils up to the 6th class in the afternoon. My occupation is funded through United Way. For the New Year we got twenty five new computing machines and a computing machine room to work in. This is the 2nd hebdomad Ive gotten a opportunity to travel in talk and show how to put up the web log with the pupils. After making some research on blogging I ran across a web site called Kidblog.org for pupils. I havent started working with them yet. Im still waiting on two more consent faux pass t be signed and returned with parents permission to acquire on-line. Kidblog.org is free, easy to put up, and safe for pupils to utilize. The childs are so aroused and seem to be motivated about it. I plan on allowing the pupils work in groups of two. Then each pupil can work on their ain diaries and book reappraisals on the books we check out of all time Tuesday during our sphere of influence trip to the library. Hopefully all goes good and by Spring interruption we should be join forcesing with other categories and the pupils can show what they have learned.Harmonizing to Choi, Gale & A Kariv, ( 2012 ) persons populating in society are bound toget her by a societal web and, in many societal and economic state of affairss, persons learn by detecting the behaviour of others in their local environment. This procedure is called societal acquisition.Learning in uncomplete webs, where different persons have different information, is particularly ambitious because of the deficiency of common cognition persons must pull illations about the actions others have observed, every bit good as about their private information.MentionsChoi, S. , Gale, D. , & A Kariv, S. ( 2012 ) . Social acquisition in webs a Quantal Response Equilibrium analysis of experimental informations.Review Of Economic Design,16( 2/3 ) , 135-157. doi10.1007/s10058-012-0122-xLondon, M. ( 2013 ) . Generative squad acquisition in Web 2.0 environments.Journal Of Management Development,32( 1 ) , 73-95. doi10.1108/02621711311287035Brown, J. S. & A Adler, R. P. ( 2008, January/February ) . Minds on Fire Open Education, the Long Tail, and Learning 2.0. EDUCAUSE Review. hype rtext transfer protocol //net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0811.pdfPESTEK, A. , KADIC-MAGLAJLIC, S. , & A NOA?ICA, M. ( 2012 ) . IMPLICATIONS OF network 2.0 USAGE IN HIGHER EDUCATION. International Journal Of Management Cases, 14 ( 1 ) , 3-12.Tunks, K. W. ( 2012 ) . An Introduction and Guide to Enhancing Online Instruction with Web 2.0 Tools.Journal Of Educators Online,9( 2 ) ,

Media Portrayals of Criminal Justice System

A limited number of commonwealth wee-wee interaction with or are having the real experience of what and how the criminal justice schema works. This is because majority of our ideas are generally drawn from the dissimilar forms of mass media news, television, flicks, and print media. Generally, all media forms show a very positive representation of the attainment and satin flower of the criminal justice transcription. The media helps to mold the mental positions and impressions of the society. It also assists in shaping the mankinds perceptions regarding criminals, crime, and justice, as well as the people within the system. In fact, the media is a racy source of details and an effective tool of shaping ones views on the criminal justice system.For the reasons that media builds a social reality, creates a publics plan of action, and designs the governments reception toward crime and justice, suggest that there is a complicated interaction between media portrayals of crime i tself and the criminal justice system in general.Broadcast and Print News portraituresAn oblige by Shannon Petersen suggests that modern overspread and print media portrayals of the criminal justice system unveil greatly about journalism. Petersen coined this as the yellow journalism due to the significantly and specifically shocking, challenging, and unreliable characteristics of the news it brings. This is also because the characteristics of yellow journalism were evident in news stories in broadcast media (television and radio) and in all the nations major newspapers (Petersen, 1991).The word titled Yellow legal expert Media Portrayal of Criminal Trials in the Progressive Era also states that newspaper, television, and radio companies were motivated more by the financial soak up instead of its justice awareness. This oftentimes led to misleading and inaccurate news reports (Petersen, 1991). Petersen (1991) also noted that yellow journalism was very apparent during industria lization arrest of newspapers and broadcasting companies.The lack of internal restriction regarding the manner and topic to report also contributed to the wide practice of yellow journalism. In fact, Petersen (1991) reported that during the early vary of the twentieth century, courts had not yet adopted judicial practices like jury segregation to avoid the presence and eventually limit the influence of media practitioners in the courtroom.Lastly, Petersen (1991) declared that media portrayals of the judicial trials in the early twentieth century promote more about an advance era of the society. For instance, even a credible newspaper such(prenominal) as the New York Times was tainted when it published a report which showed racism and sexism (Petersen, 1991). This is because the report strengthened tendencies in the society and the criminal justice system.Newspaper and broadcast reports which sensationalized the criminal justice system are stories which deal with racial and gender stereotypes, bigamy, divorce and traffic violations (Petersen, 1991). According to Pterson (1991), these articles display a knowledgeable skepticism of the king of the society to refuse the power of the media. Surprisingly, they even show the publics willingness to sacrifice the freedom of the press in the name of justice (Petersen, 1991).Television PortrayalsAltheide (1985), Gerbner and Gross (1976), and Gerbner (1993) presented a great resemblance between heavy television screening and the socialization of television-prejudiced ideas of reality (cited in McNeely, 1995). According to McNeely (1995), there is a significant involvement and study addressing the concern on strength on television and its influences on the viewers. A large number of works focuses on the issue of whether or not television portrayals of crime and violence have an effect to the viewing population on the aspect of engendering, rather than simply attesting similar mental positions and human conducts.McNeel y (1995) suggested that television programs should be utilized to experience public images of the criminal justice system itself and how those images might or might not change the knowledge, perspective, and basic understanding of the judicial system and its operation. He added that those tell images and impressions can be compared with reality in order to add to ones understanding of the criminal legality and social interaction (cited in McNeely, 1995).McNeely (1995), however, clarified that with television portrayals, people might expect to find a comparative match and an increasing level of influence on public notion of the criminal justice system. A growing level of television viewed by the postmodern individual may result in more television-defined public perspectives of criminal justice and law enforcement. McNeely (1995) added that the suggested research, apart from being distinctly absorbing and suggestive, can lead to a somewhat different and persuasive examination of t he interaction between the public and judicial system especially in terms of their interactive investigation. This is because of their significant abstract and experimental implications for related studies of the tradition, government, and the criminal justice studies in general (cited in McNeely, 1995).Movie PortrayalsIn his presentation of the movie portrayals of the criminal justice system, Myers (2006) said that movies reflect some realities about the judicial system regardless of the agreement of their screenplays to Hollywoods commercial mood. The movies shine an unflattering light on the justice system and which gives encouragement to its viewers. The movies tend to illustrate that the justice system is not essentially interested in finding the truth, despite the fact that seeking the truth is a necessary aspect of the crime victims sense of justice (Myers, 2006).A lot of movie portrayals are critiques of the criminal justice system. Most of them show how the sure system lac ks in providing uncoiled justice to crime victims. This is because in movies, many crime victims and proponents of the legal system participants must resort to their personal and more raving mad manners of seeking justice for the crimes committed against them or their love ones. This is where the judicial practice fails which the movies apparently portray.First, it does not provide enough resources or counseling to victims that have suffered from the crime. Second, the criminal justice system legal system does not adapt the appropriate punishment for crime suspects. While the court is still wondering whether law is a reflection of the public or simply impacts the perspective of the people, there is no doubt that the justice system, with all its strengths and weaknesses, is portrayed most dramatically and more often than not on the silver screen.The various media portrayals of the criminal justice system as presented in this paper have true and important impacts on the behavior of the public and the society. By knowing and understanding the ineffectiveness of the justice system as portrayed by the media, people can become more decisive consumers of media images.The various media forms are in the business of affecting how and what people think of the criminal justice system. Nowadays, it is quite hard to believe that people can just ignore everything they perceive in the media because the portrayals presented are not literally correct or because they are loosely staged models of reality.Although most people understand that what they are beholding in media is not a depiction of real events, the persuasive and powerful presentations of media have somehow affected how the human mind works. In order for a portrayal to be efficient, the audience must, in some way, identify with the characters and what they are doing, even if some aspects of the situation are unrealistic. This is where the media proves to be effective in presenting the true facet of the criminal justice system.ReferencesMcNeely, C. (1995). Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System Television Imagery and Public Knowledge in the United States. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 3(1), 1-20.Myers, R. (2006). Movies About the Legal System and the Portrayal of Crime Victims. Fordham Law Forum on Law, Culture & Society. Retrieved February 5, 2008 from Fordham Law and Culture Database.Petersen, S. (1999). Yellow Justice Media Portrayal of Criminal Trials in the ProgressiveEra. Stanford Journal of Legal Studies, 1, 72.

Mitigating Computer Fraud in the Online Environment Essay

Crime on the Internet is creating stunning losses for people as well as organizations of all kinds (Internet Crime heraldic bearing Center, 2009 Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). The necessary to inform and educate faculty, staff, and students of the diversity of threats and methods to protect and mitigate organizations and individuals from these threats is practically a moral imperative. People who lack the fundamental skills and knowledge to safeguard themselves and the institutions they attend or work for, cost those institutions and themselves billions of dollars every year, and the cost is rising (Custer, 2010 Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2009).This lack of fundamental skills and knowledge paired with the overall lack of educational activity and information tribute by a preponderance of educational institutions and handicraft makes it progressively more probable that cybercrime damages and costs provide continue to grow (Guy & Lownes-Jackson, 2011 Khansa & Liginlal, 2009). In 2 011, the fiscal cost of cybercrime was valued at 114 billion dollars (Ivan, Milodin, & Sbora, 2012). Responding to the escalated danger to educational organizations from cybercrime, a numerate of schools have been assigned to create programs for training students in Information credential Management (Kuzma, Kenney, & Philippe, 2009). Consistent with the necessity for instruction is the subsequent discussion of cyber threats and responses to them.Threats in an Online surroundings netmail is the sending of unsolicited emails to unsuspecting victims. Spam is responsible for many of the threats that will be discussed (Burgunder, 2011). Spam sufferingfully effects computer systems because its sheer volume, with eighty percent or more of e-mail shown to be spam. Spam affords the method of deploying numerous kinds of threats. These threats can be divided into application based threats and human based threats. According to two international studies, businesses do not put sufficient emp hasis on information technology security (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010).Human-based ThreatsViruses, spyware, zombies, bots, and worms are all computer programs that are applied to destroy, corrupt, or collect entropy (Burgunder, 2011 Ivan et al., 2012). These are examples of human-based threats since systems are affected as a consequence of something that a human does. A virus is a computer program that typically contaminates systems through a spam e-mail or by clicking of a random advertisement, and then replicates itself over and over again. Trojan horses are a nonreplicating lineament of virus that appears useful, but is intended to corrupt or destroy files and programs. Spyware is designed to facilitate identify theft by delivering personal identifying data to cybercriminals. Zombies and bots can effect helpful purposes, but are used to collect data concerning the utilization of a system or computer. Worms are similar to viruses but do not need to piggyback on a file to be de livered from one system to another.Federal laws enacted make it a crime to deliberately generate harm to any computer system (Burgunder, 2011). Phishing is when someone poses as a legitimate company to collect personal information from unknowing victims. Phishing typically begins with an authoritative aspect and sounding e-mail that directs the victim to a website that appears to be a legitimate business but is utilized to collect personal data (Burgunder, 2011 Custer, 2010). Phishing is currently the near widespread and well-known technique of fraud by electronic measures (Ivan et al., 2012). Software programs that either utilize a rainbow table or endeavor to deduce a password to get into a database or network is exacted password sniffing (Kara & Atalay, 2012). After an administrators password is deduced it is probable that further accounts will be breached (Custer, 2010 such(prenominal)(prenominal) too frequently transferable data with a persons identifiable data is kept by means that were not constructed for security and not counted in a data security strategy (Custer, 2010).The greatest percentage of thefts of private information is from incorrectly stored backup tapes, external hard drives, or laptops. exist laws order companies to alert affected individuals of a potential breach of their data. It is expected that the price tag of the typical breach of educational data will pair from $210,000 to as much as $4 million from the costs of notifying affected individuals alone (Custer, 2010). Still, another type of cybercrime concerning human flaw is scams. In 2011 more than 20,000 enter infringements involved four types of crime (Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2011). One of these types was FBI-related scams, in which someone impersonates a FBI agent to cheat victims, while another is personal identity theft, in which someone uses the victims personal identifying data to perpetrate a crime.The other two types are advanced fee fraud, in which a perp etrator persuades the victim to pay a fee to acquire something of value but without ever providing it and the non-delivery of products, in which the victim pays for merchandise that never arrives (Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2011 Ivan et al., 2012). Increasingly, information breaches happen because of resentful or dissatisfied employees (Custer, 2010). Presently, the main risk to datas confidentiality, availability, and integrity within a company is careless manipulation or purposeful destruction by in-house employees (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010). It is unusual for down(p) or medium companies to pay much time or attention to the harm that insufficiently educated or malicious employees can cause.Application-based ThreatsUsually when security is penetrated from outside it is because of vulnerabilities or configuration errors connected to applications installed on networks and computers (Custer, 2010). The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP) enumerates 162 vulnerabili ties a standard software application may contain that could be manipulated. Two of the most often abused application vulnerabilities are dig flaws and cross-site scripting (Custer, 2010). Cross-site scripting incorporates extra code in a HTTP response message that gets implemented if the vulnerability is not detected and prevented. The implementation of this code could involve dispatching the session cooky to someone who could then utilize that cookie to do damage (Custer, 2010).Current scrutiny estimates that poorly written and protected web pages permit as much as forty percent of information breaches by means of cross-site scripting (Custer, 2010). A database language that permits the retrieval and manipulation of objects and data on a relational database centering system is the Structured Query Language (SQL). SQL injection attacks permits invaders to make several harmful changes. One possibility is to cause repudiation problems such as changing balances or voiding transacti ons. Another possibility is to meddle with data by allowing full disclosure of all information on the system or to slip by the information or make it unavailable.A disturbing possibility is to make the intruder the administrator of the database server. The vulnerability happens when no effort is made to authenticate the substance abuser information, this makes it possible for an experienced user to input data in such a way to displace the real function of the SQL, and implement code for iniquitous purposes (Custer, 2010). Between ten to twenty percent of information breaches happen because of web pages that vigorously generate statements against the database without authenticating the statements before proceeding to execution (Custer, 2010).Threat Responses in an Online EnvironmentThe necessity to develop, plan, and, most importantly, implement IT security awareness instruction is essential to guarantee the security of faculty, student, and institutional information (Mensch & Wilk ie, 2011). Todays systems have gravestone security components such as spam filters and intrusion detection systems (Ivan et al., 2012). These components can expose unauthorized admission and filter electronic communications that are deemed gamey risk. Some information breaches happen because of system invasion and extraordinary technical talents of criminals. However, the majority happen because of human error and are founded more on ingenuity and cleverness (Ivan et al., 2012). Needed are policies, awareness and technology, education and training to ensure data security for both organizations and individuals (Mensch & Wilkie, 2011).Responding to Human-based ThreatsThere are several actions that can be taken to eliminate or minimize the threats posed by viruses, spyware, zombies, bots, and worms. Installing a virus detecting software, then keeping it current, and confirming that it operates on a systematic schedule is the principal defense for these threats. Additionally, a brow ser add-in that verifies web site ratings prior to permitting routing to a site should be installed and it will also inform users when they may be making a questionable or unsafe Internet selection. Furthermore, browser pop-up blockers reduce the frequency of successful infringement of this kind (Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). Finally, a security information awareness program should teach faculty, staff, and students concerning the gravity of the danger and the potential cost of their actions. Phishing is so widespread and flourishing due to the inexperience of users. An fitting amount of education and training is the key to alleviating the success of a phishing tactic (Ivan et al., 2012).The way to mitigate or eliminate password sniffing is to teach all users on all systems to utilize hardened passwords. A hardened password is deemed to be a password that is changed at least every 90 days, with at least eight characters with one being a different case from the rest of the password, one is a special character, and at least one is a number (Custer, 2010). It is also essential that each user use a special hardened password for every system and that these hardened passwords not be put down in a manner that can be discovered. An even superior remedy for sensitive information is a two-factor authentication that requests something the user has, such as a random digit produced by a miniature hardware token and something the user knows, like a password (Custer, 2010).A suggestion for IT professionals is to consider how they would transport over $200,000, and use comparable common sense and caution in their treatment of private information and the vehicle on which it is stored (Custer 2010). Also, it is recommended that any movable device use whole disk encryption and consequently if it is misplaced or stolen then information is rendered unreadable. Another method for decreasing human error is to inform users of the most predominant scams so they are prepared and less lik ely to be fooled (Ivan et al., 2012). The Internet Crime Complaint Center issues guidelines for performing business online (2011). A curriculum to maintain and increase data security awareness among staff, faculty, and students has a considerably inconsequential cost when equated to the conceivable costs of a security breach, but does entail consistency in application (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010).Responding to Application-based ThreatsThe FBI reported that ninety percent of security infiltrations is from recognized problems. Assistive services have been designed that will permit companies to test their systems for these problems. Running these tests and then repairing any problems that are detected is vital to protect the system from the majority of security infiltrations (Custer, 2010). Also, creating a policy of regular system tests will most likely ensure that these types of system infiltrations will not occur. The most effective way to guard against SQL infiltration is centered on solid input validation (Ivan et al., 2012). Products exist that can be installed on systems to test a web sites security ratings. Cross-site scripting can be curtailed through the utilization of such products.ConclusionInformation technology security must be first and foremost for an organization. The protection of faculty, staff, and student personal data is critical to individual privacy and, furthermore, to the finances and reputation of the organization. Dangers to IT security come from weaknesses intrinsic to the use of compound software products and from human error. The educational organizations IT team is responsible for averting the occurrence of information breaches and implementing appropriate tactics to diminish the damage of a data breach if it occurs. Information Security plans abstract the security procedures that must be taken by an institution and should include both strategic and high level as well as usable and detailed. A key element in any information secu rity plan must be the education and training of the individuals who have access to information.ReferencesBurgunder, L. B. (2011). court-ordered aspects of managing technology (5th ed.). Mason, OH South-Western Cengage Learning.Custer, W. L. (2010). Information security issues in higher education and institutional research. New Directions for Institutional Research, 146, 23-49. doi10.1002/ir.341Guy, R., & Lownes-Jackson, M. (2011). Business continuity strategies An assessment of planning, preparedness, response and recovery activities for emergency disasters. Review of Management Innovation & Creativity, 4(9), 55-69. Retrieved from http//www.intellectbase.org/articles.php?journal=RMIC&volume=4&issue=9Internet Crime Complaint Center. (2011). Internet Crime Report. Washington, DC National White Collar Crime Center and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved from http//www.ic3.gov/media/annualreport/2011_ic3report.pdfIvan, I., Milodin, D., & Sbora, C. (2012). Non security Prem ise of cybercrime. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 19(4), 59-78. Retrieved from http//www.ectap.ro/Khansa, L., & Liginlal, D. (2009). Quantifying the benefits of investing in information security. communications of the ACM, 52(11), 113-117. doi10.1145/1592761.1592789Kuzma, J. M., Kenney, S., & Philippe, T. (2010). Creating an information technology security program for educators. International Journal of Business Research, 10(1), 172-180. Retrieved from http//www.iabe.org/domains/iabe/journal.aspx?journalid=12Labodi, C., & Michelberger, P. (2010). Necessity or challenge information security for small and medium enterprises. Annals of the University of Petrosani Economics, 10(3), 207-216. Retrieved from http//www.upet.ro/anale/economie/pdf/20100322.pdfMensch, S., & Wilkie, L. (2011). Information security activities of college students An exploratory study. Academy of Information and Management Sciences Journal, 14(2), 91-116. Retrieved from http//www.alliedacademies.org/Publicati ons/Papers/AIMSJ_Vol_14_No_2_2011%20p%2091-116.pdf

“How to Tame a Wild” Tongue Essay Essay

In paragraphs 27 through 34 of Gloria Anzalduas essay How to Tame a Wild Tongue she subtly conveys her own disgust at the invariable destruction of her Chi rear endo culture by using the rhetorical strategies of organized syntax, narrative flashbacks, and the incorporation of her native tongue.Between paragraphs 27 and 30, the syntax conveys Anzalduas deep emotions about her lingual identity using mostly balanced and declarative sentences. The perfect balanced in noticed in excerpts such as Until I can take pride in my language, I cannot take pride in myself. Until I can accept as legitimate Chicano Texas Spanish, Tex-Mex, and all in all other languages I speak, I cannot accept the legitimacy of myself. In a series of staccato complex sentences Anzaldua further describes her longing for lingual acceptance by stating I will have my voice Indian, Spanish, white.I will have my serpents tongue my womans voice, my sexual voice, m y poets voice. By organizing her sentences in this way, s he draws the indorsers attention to the fact that she is virtually unable to accept herself without her own language being judge as it is a part of her. In this way the reader is able to sympathize with the origins lack of self-realization and is able to more in full understand the authors indignation with the dissection of her mother-tongue.Anzaldua employs the useful tactic of a narrative flashback to further instill an empathetic emotion in the reader. She recounts her stunned awe upon reading her first Chicano novel City of Night. Soon after that she is exposed to more Chicano literature an purge poetry, and with each exposure she gains a whimsey of pure joy and a sense of belonging. Here, she targets a the basic human emotion of wanting to be accepted among a group for who we unfeignedly are as opposed to what others want us or think us to be. Such a plea for acceptance is an easy concept for the reader to relate to, and thus this method serves to draw the reader into t he authors personal predicament and promote her feelings of resentment at the degradation of her native culture.The author does a wonderful job of incorporating her own language into the essay as a whole. She does so in a way that, even non-Spanish speakingreaders, can understand the gist of the message she is trying to convey. Also by integrating her native language into the essay she gestatees its importance to her. In lines such as mess who were to amount to something didnt go to Mexican movies, or bailes, or tune their radios to bolero, rancherita, and corrido music, Anzaldua is not obligated to translate the last three words as the context of the passage reveals the basic meanings of those words to an acceptably understandable degree. Her incorporation of her language is almost seen as an attempt for her to personally save or even resurrect the language that she prefers most and wishes others would accept as justifiable so she herself can come to realize her own legitimacy.Th roughout her essay, Anzaldua keeps to her course of trying to express her sadness at her cultures disassembling through several rhetorical devices, notably those of syntax, flashback, and by including the language she is most comfortable with. With these tactics she is able to better reach the fairish reader on a personal level and to gain their empathy in her hopes of preserving/reinstating her disappearing culture.

Academic Performance of College Students

faculty member performance and calculation of university scram gotmans a case lead. Ads by Google Online University Online University programs 100% Online, 100% Supported WaldenUniversity. com Subject academician feat (Analysis) College shallow-age childs (Case studies) bookman guidance services (Analysis) Authors Addus, Abdussalam A. Chen, David Khan, Anwar S. Pub Date 06/01/2007 Publication NameCollegeStudentJournal PublisherProjectInnovation(Alabama) AudienceAcademic formattingMagazine/Journal SubjectEducation secureCOPYRIGHT2007ProjectInnovation(Alabama) ISSN0146-3934 importDateJune, 2007 Source Volume41 Source Issue2 Topic CanadianSubjectFormSchool counselling Product ProductCodeE197500 Students, College geographical GeographicScopeNorth Carolina GeographicCode1U5NC North Carolina Ads by Google Ch counterbalanceing English Test Sit Your PTE Academic Test Now Easy Sign Up & Results In 5 geezerhood Pearsonpte. com/Chevening Become a Doctor in the US Study at Offshore Campus, Practise Medicine in the U. S. Apply Today www. AUAMed. org Harvest watt Christian Leadership Training Certificate, Diploma and Degree www. harvestwest. edu. au Online MBA Course at LSBF UK Global MBA degree, 100% online.Choose MBA specialisation now www. LSBF. org. uk/MBA-Online Learn Financial fashion model Step-by-Step, Self Study & Classes Buld DCF, LBO, M&A, Comps Models www. WallStreetPrep. com Accession Number 163679000 Full Text The lack of adequate background and/or preparation, among other things, causes some(prenominal) students to withdraw from college or to down with misfortunate grades, which often substantiates it difficult for them to receive suitable jobs. This paper examines the academician performance and efforts to look for economic helper for academic and link capers of undergraduate students at North Carolina A&T tell University.To that effect, the grade reports of teleph ace line and economic science majors and responses to a horizo n of students registered in commercial enterprise and economics courses were qualitatively analyzed. The results of the analyses indicated that many students experienced academic deficiency and did non seek assistance when faced with occupations. The results also demoteed that many of the students who sought assistance rated the services they sure as idle and indicated their preference for indoctrinate-level advisement services.The development of a school-specific academic monitor and advisement center would alleviate these problems. Such a center, with a comprehensive and extended advisement and counseling program, testament be more than effective than university-wide services in meliorate student academic performance and marketability upon commencement. ********** T from each oneing, research and service be ordinarily used as a yardstick to measure staff contri exceptions to high educational activity institutions. Major universities encounter prospicient stressed the importance of research activities copulation to teaching.Over the last two decades, many of smaller teaching institutions, including the Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) where research activities were recognized only to the extent that they would keep educators and the knowledge they transmit to students current, slang been under pressure to acquire external funds for scholarships, faculty development, and meeting accreditation standards (Fielding 1985). As these institutions, fibreicularly the HBCUs, placed more emphasis on faculty research productivity, they atomic number 18 faced with the challenge of striking a balance between teaching and research activities.Neverthe little, most(prenominal) colleges and universities recognize that teaching is the ultimate goal of their institutions (Wiley 1993). The primary quill(prenominal) factors considered for improving teaching effectiveness among other things, include teaching approaches and techniques and faculty availability for student assistance and advisement. However, students in high education institutions must be motivated and committed to make reasonable efforts toward handling divers(a) activities, such as reading, written assignments, class discussion, presentation and examinations, effectively.Accordingly, the students commitment to attain a exhaustively education, their study habits and cooperation, their motivation and efforts to seek assistance, when required, are equally critical for learning. Thus, since the provision and consumption of education service occur simultaneously, the students active participation in the function is a necessary condition to transform teaching to effective learning (Norales and Addus 2003). This paper assesses the academic performance and efforts of undergraduate students to seek assistance for academic and link problems at North Carolina A&T State.The paper (1) examines the academic performance and deficiencies of the students in t erms of their overall grade point averages (2) identifies the relative magnitude of student academic and related problems from freshman to aged classifications (3) presents student evaluation of the effectiveness of advisement and counseling services available to students and (4) recommends the development of a school-specific academic monitoring and advisement center to cleanse student academic performance and marketability upon graduation.Methods and Instrumentation The 1998 grade point averages (grade point averages) of undergraduate business and economics majors were used to interpret the levels of student academic performance and deficiencies, with the application of chi-square statistic test to the relevant data. The student grade reports (the most recent data available) were obtained from the North Carolina A&T State Universitys School of Business and economics. In addition, data from students were collected with a student passel of 2002.The sample for the student advi sement and counseling effectiveness questionnaire consisted of students enrolled in business and economics courses at North Carolina A State University. The questionnaire items were designed to elicit responses from students to determine the magnitude of student academic and related problems, efforts to seek assistance to solve their problems, evaluation of effectiveness assistance they received, and preference for the location of advising and monitoring services within the University.The results of this study undersurface be used as a source of data that whoremaster provide information on the curriculum effectiveness at North Carolina A State and other universities. Such data can assist educators in curriculum planning and development so that they can better meet the needs of students. Student Academic Performance and prospect Results The results of this study are implant on the examination of the School of Business and sparings student GPAs and the student advisement and cou nseling survey of students enrolled in business and economics courses at North Carolina A State University.The results are centered around (1) the student academic performance levels and deficiencies (2) the magnitude of student academic and related problems (3) the students efforts to seek assistance to solve problems (4) the student evaluation of effectiveness assistance received and (5) the student preference for the location of advising and monitoring services. The following are the findings of the study based on student grade point averages and student advisement and counseling services questionnaire responses. Student Academic performanceThe school of Business and Economics at North Carolina A State University consists of accounting, business administration, business education and economics and transportation/logistics departments. The distributions of grade point average of students enrolled in the School during the 1998 fall semester are presented in add-in 1. For the data in the Table, the chi-square test statistic is significant. This indicates that grade distributions by classification are statistically different. Generally, the number of students with low grade point averages decrease from freshman to senior classifications.In other words, more freshmen maintained turn away grades relative to seniors, and more seniors maintained higher grade point averages than freshmen. More specifically, the data indicates that, in the School of Business and Economics, 55% of freshman, 14% of sophomore, 16% of junior, and 6% of senior students maintained to a demoralize place 2. 00 grade point averages. The decline in the proportion of students with lower grades from the freshman to senior levels is an indication of either grade improvements, transfer from one program to a nonher or withdrawal and/or suspension/dismissal from the university.In their senior year, 41% of students maintained a GPA of below 2. 50, 23% below 2. 25, and 6% below 2. 00. For all cla ssifications, 53% of students maintained a GPA of below 2. 50, 39% below 2. 25, and 26% below 2. 00. The School of Business and Economics cannot afford to ignore 23% students who may graduate with a GPA of lower than 2. 25 and 41% below 2. 50, only to find it difficult to find professional jobs of their choice in their respective field.Apparently, students need to be monitored, encouraged and aided to play an active role in their pursuit to achieve their education and career objectives. Student Survey Results Of some 206 students who responded to the survey, 52% were female person and 48% were male students. By classification, 10% were freshmen, 30% sophomore, 37% junior and 23% senior students. In terms of general fields of study, 68% majored in business and economics and 32% in other areas, including arts and sciences, education and engineering (Table 2).These figures conjure up that the survey represents a balanced coverage on gender, student classification, and various fields of study. Magnitude of Student Academic and Related Problems Of 154 who sought assistance, 52% were female and 48% were male students. By classification, 9% were freshmen, 30% sophomore, 37% junior and 25% were senior students (Table 3). The data in the Table is indicative of the fact that the number of problems faced by students generally declined from freshman to senior year of their study.Of 52 students who did not seek assistance, 52% were female and 48% were male students. By classification, 17% were freshmen, 30% junior, 37% sophomore and 19% senior students. A total of 56% who did not seek sponsor were junior and senior students. The reasons indicated for not seeking assistance are that 19% did not comport any problems, 17% did not have succession to seek assistance, 19% did not know the availability of assistance, 14% did not believe such assistance would be useful, and 15% indicated a combination of the above factors (Table 4).Student Efforts to Seek Assistance Out of 2 06 students who sought assistance, 60% consulted with their academic advisors and 30% with course instructors or respective departments. Only 4% indicated to have sought assistance with the University Center for Success (Table 5). Student Evaluation of Assistance Effectiveness Of 154 students who sought help, 72% indicated that the assistance they were offered was effective resulting in grade improvements, deepen self-confidence, remaining in major for the better, and changing major for the better.However, 28% indicated that the assistance they received was not effective at all (Table 6). Student Preference for Advising and monitor Services Of 206 survey respondents, 147 (71%) indicated their preference for student monitoring and counseling services at school/college level (as opposed to counseling at the university level) and 92% indicated that they would seek assistance more often if such services were available at school/college level (Table 7).The Case for Academic Monitoring a nd Advising Center The findings of this study reveal that relatively low grades and high dropure rates were maintained by upper level undergraduate students with the possibility of marketability problems. The findings further show that 28% of survey respondents say the assistance services they received were not effective. Another 28% of the respondents, of which 56% were juniors and seniors, did not seek help to resolve their academic and related problems.In addition, 71% of respondents indicated their preference for a school-level assistance services, and the overwhelming majority (92%) say they would seek help more often if such services were available at the school level. It follows that a school-specific academic monitoring and advisement center (AMAC), with a comprehensive agenda for student advisement and counseling, will be effective in improving student academic performance and marketability.The need for the AMAC is underscored by other studies. The main problems bear u pon student academic performance include inadequate background, induceing long hours, lack of time to study and seek advice, lack of time management skills, bad study habits and skills, and lack of self-confidence. Many students are also faced with various impediments in their pursuit of higher education and career objectives, including financial problems, family responsibilities, and social and extracurricular activities.Some of these activities do not only take away from the time needed for sleeping, attending class and studying, but they also cause considerable stress resulting in negative effects on academic performance as metrical in terms of GPA (Womble 2001). The results of a survey of 239 university students enrolled in business and economics courses at North Carolina A State University indicated that most students did not have sufficient time to read the textbook and study, and that their absence from class was practise related.The majority (56 %) of the students stated that they could not take lecture notes while listening, and 29 % said they could not understand the lecture (Norales and Addus 2003). Kelly et al (2001) classified college students into short sleepers (individuals who slept six or fewer hours a day), average sleepers (individuals with seven or hours of sleep a day), and long sleepers (individuals sleeping nine or more hours a day). They found that the individuals who represented long sleepers reported higher GPAs than the first two groups.Many students are admitted to a university as a result of their performance in examinations that do not demand the same preparation levels required to succeed in higher education. Thus, one of the main factors affecting the academic performance of college and university students is the lack of adequate preparation skills (Beswick and Ramsden 1987). Entwistle et al (1989) studied the academic performance of electrical engineering students and found that low course grades were associated with inadequ ate study skills, and that many students had not established adequate independent study strategies required to succeed in higher education.Eikeland & Manger (1992) looked into factors affecting student achievement, especially those factors related to high failure and dropout rates. The findings showed that organized study habits had a positive impact on self confidence during the students first semester, but such study habits did not have a direct effect on grades until as late as their fourth semester in college. In a survey of close to 350,000 students attending four-year exoteric and close colleges, over 70 items related to the students educational experiences on the survey instrument were grouped into 12 factors. 1) The survey results indicated that out of these factors, public college/university students rated academic advising as the most important aspect of their educational experiences. Private college/university students rated academic advising second to only instructiona l effectiveness in importance. When students were asked to rate five items (2) comprised academic advising, both public and private college/university students rated the academic advisors approachability and the academic advisors knowledge about major requirements as strengthsmeaning most important and most satisfying (Noel-Levitz 2003).In general, the success or failure in higher education are not explained by the student attributes or faculty teaching efficiency in isolation, but by the complex interactions between students and the learning environments they experience (Entwistle 1990). Thus, students are in need of comprehensive advisement, counseling and resist services including time management, stress management, efficient study style, habits and skills, reading, writing, and lecture note taking skills, and other support services.These must help students enhance their capacity to traverse the relevant subject, self confidence, verbal and written communication, academic perfo rmance, and to be competitive and productive members of the community. Academic Monitoring and Advising Center The findings of this study, along with the discussion of relevant literature, suggest that a school-specific AMAC, with a comprehensive agenda for student advisement and counseling, will be effective in improving student academic performance and marketability.The primary purpose of the AMAC is to enhance student academic performance and name marketable graduates by providing extended assistance and guidance to students in academic activities and related areas. At North Carolina A State University there are university-wide student support services, including the Center for Student Success (which is focused on student retention) and school-level academic help services. In addition, there are programs which are designed to mentor students with high academic standing, in collaboration with potential employers, to prepare them for the real world work environment upon graduatio n.However, many students who for various reasons fail to perform to their potential levels deserve to be uplifted through a similar program provided by the AMAC. Compared with university-wide academic counseling services available for students, the AMAC will be more effective for needy students can be given individual and unique attention accommodate to their specific needs by their respective schools. In addition to regular advisement provided by academic advisors, the AMAC will provide counseling services for students who fail to reach a minimum GPA of 2. 0 during each semester. To start with, such students will be able to discuss issues regarding specific courses and their course lots with an advisor from the AMAC, and receive advice on how to successfully manage their time and handle their course loads. Also, the AMAC if necessary, can suggest changes in course, course loads and schedule to help the students balance their time between school and work. As mentioned above, one o f the biggest problems that many students have is lack of time and time management skills.If this problem is solved proto(prenominal), students will be able to maintain a more marketable GPA. The AMAC will continuously monitor students and evaluate their grades throughout each semester to insure that these students continue to do well in the school, and graduate within a reasonable period of time. Students who need assistance must be identified at the appropriate time and be given intensive advice and counseling. It will maintain a data base for all students in the School of Business and Economics with an overall GPA of 2. 0 or less. The data can be collected from student applications, academic records, and surveys (Seidman, 1996). The AMAC will coordinate its activities with university programs designed to provide remedial services to students with inferior backgrounds. It will refer students to other departments and and University support services for problems outside its respon sibilities. Such intensive intervention will likely help not only improve academic performance, but also retain students and enable them to graduate with decent grades.Student participation in the AMACs program shall enhance their capabilities to improve their academic standing through sound advice and counseling which will positively influence their attitude toward learning and grades, time management skills and study habits. The AMAC will further facilitate development of university policies and programs designed to overcome academic deficiencies and encourage students to stay in school and achieve their academic and career objectives.Conclusions Academic advising is a very important aspect of students educational experiences in higher education. In order to enhance teaching and learning effectiveness, higher education institutions must listen to their students unique needs and priorities by assessing assistance services available to students. The results of such assessments can b e used to develop targeted action plans for serving specific student population.The results of the analyses of data obtained from the School of Business and Economics grade reports and a survey of students enrolled in business and economics courses at North Carolina A State University, along with other relevant literature, imply that many college students need a school-specific academic monitoring and advisement services at an early stage of their college career. It is apparent that it becomes difficult, if not impossible, for junior and senior students to make purposeful grade improvements due to the short span of time available to them during their last years of study forwards graduation.This may pose a serious marketability problem for some of the graduates of these programs with low grades. In the real world of ever increasing globalization and more competitive job market environments, college students need to acquire higher skills and GPAs. The proposed AMAC is certainly a fi rst step to guide needy students in this direction. References Beswick, D. and Ramsden, P, (1987). How to Promote Learning with Understanding. Working Paper 871. Melbourne Center for the Study of high Education, University of Melbourne. Eikeland, O. J. and Manger, T. (1992).Why Students Fail During Their First University Semesters. International Review of Education 38(5), 489-503. Entwistle, N. J. (1990). How Students Learn and Why They Fail. Paper Presented at Conference on Talent and Teaching, University of Bergen. Entwistle, N. J. , Hoursell, D. , Macaulay, C. , Situnayake, G. and Tait, H. (1989). Success and Failure in Electrical Engineering Courses in Scotland. Summary of a Report to the SED. Edinburgh subdivision of Education and Center for Teaching, Learning and Assessment. University of Edinburgh. Fielding, G. J. (1985). Transportation Education, Part Two.Report of Joint Conference, Eno Foundation control board of Directors and Board of Consultants. Transportation Quarter ly, 39(2), 207-233. Kelly, W. E. , Kelly, K. E. and Clanton, R. C. (others) (2001). The Relationship between Sleep length and Grade-Point-Average among College Students, College Student Journal. Noel-Levitz Research (2003). Academic Advising Highly Important to Students, www. noellevitz. com. Norales, Francisca O. and Addus, Abdussalam A. (2003). University Students Learning Efforts, Texas Business and Technology Educators friendship Journal, Vol.VII, No. 1. Seidman, A. (1996). Retention revisited R = E, ID + E & In, Iv. Journal of College Student Retention. 71(4), 18-20. Wiley, III, Ed (1993). Re-Emphasizing Teaching. Black Issues in Higher Education. Womble, Laura P (2001). The Impact of Stress Factors on College Students Academic Performance, Working Paper, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, N. C. ABDUSSALAM A. ADDUS Associate Professor DAVID CHEN Associate Professor ANWAR S. KHAN Professor Emeritus Department of Economics and Transportation/Logistics North Carolina A Stat e University Notes 1) the factors are academic advising, campus climate, campus Life, campus Support Services, concern for the Individual, instructional Effectiveness, recruitment and financial aid effectiveness, registration effectiveness, responsiveness to diverse population, safety and security, service excellence, and student centeredness. (2) the items are the academic advisors approachability, the academic advisors knowledge about major requirements, the academic advisors concern about the students success as an individual, the academic advisors assistance to set goals and work toward, and the clearness and reasonableness of major requirements.Table 1 Grade Distribution of Students in the School of Business and Economics by salmagundi, Fall 1998 Grade Range Classification Freshman Sophomore Junior No. % No. % No. % 3. 50-4. 00 20 6 46 19 20 10 3. 00-3. 49 26 7 44 18 32 16 2. 50-2. 99 45 13 62 25 45 23 2. 25-2. 49 33 9 33 13 33 17 2. 00-2. 24 37 10 28 11 34 18 Below 2. 00 200 55 35 14 31 16 aggregate 361 100 248 100 195 100 Chi-square 278. 38 * Grade Range Classification Senior either No. % No. % 3. 50-4. 00 18 7 104 10 3. 00-3. 49 42 17 144 13 2. 50-2. 99 90 35 242 24 2. 25-2. 49 47 18 146 14 2. 00-2. 24 44 17 143 13 Below 2. 00 14 6 280 26 Total 255 100 1059 100 Chi-square 278. 38 * Note * Statistically significant at 5 percent probability level.Source School of Business and Economics, NC A&T State University. Table 2 Profile of Survey Respondents Item Frequency Percent grammatical gender (n = 206) Male 99 48. 1 Female 107 51. 9 Classification (n = 206) Freshman 21 10. 2 Sophomore 61 29. 6 Junior 77 37. 4 Senior 47 22. 8 Major Area Unit (n = 206) Business and Economics 140 68. 0 Other Areas * 66 32. * Include Arts and Science, Education, and Engineering. Table 3 Distribution of Number Problems for Students who Sought Assistance * (n = 154) Classification Number of Problems and Gender One Two Three Four Five Six Total Plus Classification Freshman 4 1 3 2 1 2 13 Sophomore 16 4 7 9 8 2 46 Junior 14 14 12 6 4 7 57 Senior 6 7 14 7 3 1 38Total 40 26 36 24 16 12 154 Gender Male 19 15 15 11 8 6 74 Female 21 13 19 13 8 6 80 Total 40 26 36 24 16 12 154 * Problems include adding/dropping courses, choosing major, changing major, improving grades, time management, internship opportunities, personal problems which affect academic performance. Table 4 Distribution of students who did not Seek Assistance (n = 52) frequency Percent of Total ClassificationFreshman 9 17. 3 Sophomore 14 29. 9 Junior 19 36. 5 Senior 10 19. 3 Total 52 100. 0 Gender Male 25 48. 1 Female 27 51. 9 Total 52 100. 0 Reason for not Seeking Did not have problems 10 19. Did not have time 9 17. 3 Did not know availability of assistance 10 19. 2 Did not believe it is useful 7 13. 5 Combination of last three 8 15. 4 Other reasons 8 15. 4 Total 52 100. 0 Table 5 Student Efforts to Seek Assistance for Academic Problems (n = 154) Assistance sought from Frequency Percent Academic Advisor 89 59. 7 Department/Course instructor 44 29. University Center for Success 6 4. 0 SOBE resource Lab 3 2. 0 University counselling Service 3 2. 0 Career Counseling 2 1. 4 Financial Aid 2 1. 4 Table 6 Student evaluation of Effectiveness of Assistance Sought (n = 149) Item frequency Percent Grade improved 13 8. 7 Enhanced self-confidence 4 2. 7 Remained in major 15 10. 1 Changed major for better 16 10. 7 Two or more of above 60 40. 3No effect 41 27. 5 Table 7 Student Preference for Counseling/Monitoring Services Location (n = 206) Item Frequency Percent Prefer student Counseling at school level Yes 147 71. 3 No 44 21. 4 Indifferent 15 7. 3 Would seek assistance more often if getable at school/college level) Yes 92 44. 7 No 15 7. Not sure 45 21. 8 Indifferent 54 26. 2 Gale Copyright Copyright 2007 Gale, Cengage Learning. wholly rights reserved. Economic Scene Colleges Are Failing in Graduation Rates Top of Form Bottom of Form Share By DAVID LEONHARDT promulgated September 8, 2009 If you were going to come up with a list of organizations whose failures had done the most damage to the American economy in recent years, youd in all likelihood have to start with the Wall Street firms and regulatory agencies that brought us the financial crisis.From there, you might move on to Wall Streets fellow bailout recipients in Detroit, the once-Big Three. Multimedia pic From the Most Selective Colleges, More Graduates Related The College Dropout Boom Economix Which Colleges Are Doing Their Job? Reader Responses Failing Colleges Readers Comments Share your thoughts and read responses to readers comments from David Leonhardt on the Economix blog. Read All Comments (113) But I would suggest that the list should also include a less obvious nominee public universities.At its top levels, the American system of higher education may be the best in the world. Yet in terms of its core mission turning teenagers into educated college graduates much of the system is preci sely failing. Only 33 percent of the freshmen who enter the University of Massachusetts, Boston, graduate within six years. Less than 41 percent graduate from the University of Montana, and 44 percent from the University of New Mexico. The economic expert Mark Schneider refers to colleges with such dropout rates as failure factories, and they are the norm.The United States does a good job enrolling teenagers in college, but only half of students who enroll end up with a bachelors degree. Among rich countries, only Italy is worse. Thats a big reason inequality has soared, and productivity growth has slowed. Economic growth in this decade was on pace to be slower than in any decade since World War II even before the financial crisis started. So identifying the causes of the college dropout crisis matters enormously, and a new book tries to do precisely that. It is called Crossing the Finish Line, and its findings are based on the records of about 200,000 students at 68 colleges.The a uthors were able to get their hands on that data because two of them are pillars of the education establishment William Bowen (an economist and former Princeton president) and Michael McPherson (an economist and former Macalester College president). For all the books alarming statistics, its message is ultimately uplifting or at least invigorating. Yes, inadequate precollege education is a problem. But high schools still produce many students who have the skills to complete college and yet fail to do so. Turning them into college graduates should be a lot less difficult than fixing all of American education. We could be doing a lot better with college completion just by working on our colleges, as Robert Shireman, an Education Department official who has read an early version of the book, says. Congress and the Obama administration are now putting together an education bill that tries to deal with the problem. It would cancel about $9 billion in annual government subsidies for bank s that lend to college students and use much of the money to cast up financial aid. A small portion of the money would be set past for promising pilot programs aimed at lifting the number of college graduates. All in all, the bill would help.But it wont solve the systems biggest problems the focus on enrollment rather than completion, the fact that colleges are not held to account for their failures. Crossing the Finish Line makes it clear that we can do better. The first problem that Mr. Bowen, Mr. McPherson and the books third author, Matthew Chingos, a doctoral candidate, diagnose is something they call under-matching. It refers to students who choose not to attend the best college they can get into. They rather go to a less selective one, perhaps one thats close together(predicate) to home or, given the torturous financial aid process, less expensive.About half of low-income students with a high school grade-point average of at least 3. 5 and an SAT score of at least 1,20 0 do not attend the best college they could have. Many dont even apply. Some apply but dont enroll. I was really astonished by the degree to which presumptively well-qualified students from poor families under-matched, Mr. Bowen told me. They could have been admitted to myocardial infarctions Ann Arbor campus (graduation rate 88 percent, according to College Results Online) or Michigan State (74 percent), but they went, say, to Eastern Michigan (39 percent) or Western Michigan (54 percent).If they graduate, it would be hard to get upset about their choice. But large-scale numbers do not. You can see that in the chart with this column. In effect, at rest students many of whom will graduate no matter where they go attend the colleges that do the best job of producing graduates. These are the places where many students live on campus (which raises graduation rates) and graduation is the norm. Meanwhile, lower-income students even when they are better qualified often go to colleg es that excel in producing dropouts. Its really a waste, Mr. Bowen says, and a big problem for the country. As the authors point out, the only way to lift the college graduation rate significantly is to lift it among poor and working-class students. Instead, it appears to have fallen somewhat since the 1970s. What can be done? Money is clearly part of the answer. Tellingly, net cultivation has no impact on the graduation rates of high-income students. Yet it does affect low-income students. All else equal, they are less likely to make it through a more expensive state college than a less expensive one, the book shows. Conservatives are maltreat to suggest affordability doesnt matter.But they are right that more money isnt the whole answer. Higher education today also suffers from a deep ethnical problem. Failure has become acceptable. Students see no need to graduate in four years. Doing so, as one told the books authors, is like leaving the fellowship at 1030 p. m. Graduation d elayed often becomes graduation denied. Administrators then make excuses for their graduation rates. And policy makers hand out money based on how many students a college enrolls rather than on what it does with those students. There is a real parallel here to health care.We pay doctors and hospitals for more care instead of better care, and what do we get? More care, even if in many cases it doesnt make us healthier. In education, the incentives can be truly perverse. Because large lecture classes are cheaper for a college than seminars, freshmen are cheaper than upperclassmen. So a college that allows many of its underclassmen to drop out may be helping its bottom line. If you look closely, you can still find reasons for optimism. A few colleges, like the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, have intensive programs that have raised graduation rates.The State of West Virginia has begun tying student aid to academic progress, and graduation rates there have risen. Washington Mo nthly magazine has published a new college ranking based in part on graduation rates. (Kudos to Penn State, among others. ) When students fill out an online form for federal financial aid, the Obama Education Department now informs them of the graduation rate at any college in which they express interest. But an enormous amount of work remains, and its hard to return of any work thats more important to the American economy.Last year, even in the grip of a recession that has spared no group of workers, the gap between what a college graduate earned and what everyone else earned reached a record. Workers with bachelors degrees made 54 percent more on average than those who attended college but didnt barricade, according to the Labor Department. Fifty-four percent just think about how that adds up over a lifetime. And then think about how many students never cross the college finish line. E-mail emailprotected com Public dooms students for their failure at college By Eric Gorski As sociated Press Published Monday, Dec. 3 2010 1239 a. m. MST Share Twitter Pinterest 0 0 0 pic View 2 photos Summary The public pins most of the blame for poor college graduation rates on students and their parents and gives a pass to colleges, government officials and others, a new Associated Press-Stanford University poll shows.Nov. 16, 2011 pic The public pins most of the blame for poor college graduation rates on students and their parents and gives a pass to colleges, government officials and others, a new Associated Press-Stanford University poll shows. All sectors of American higher education received high marks for quality. That extends to for-profit colleges, despite recent criticism of dubious recruiting tactics, high student loan default rates and other problems at some schools. As is often the case, the truth lies somewhere in between, said William A. Sederburg, Utahs Commissioner of Higher Education. We know hig her education campuses can really do a lot more to improve retention. It is also true that a lot of students show up on campus without direction in their lives and without focus on what they want to do. Those are students that are most likely to drop out. But a belief that students are most at fault for graduation rates may be a troubling sign for reformers who have elevated college completion to the forefront of higher education policy debates and pushed colleges to fix the problem, said Michael Kirst, professor emeritus of education and business administration at Stanford. The message is, Students, you had your shot at college and failed and its your fault, not the college, Kirst said. When asked where the blame lies for graduation rates at public four-year colleges, 7 in 10 said students shouldered either a great deal or a lot of it, and 45 percent felt that way about parents. Others got off relatively easy Anywhere between 25 percent and 32 percent of those polled blamed colle ge administrators, professors, teachers, unions, state education officials and federal education officials. Taking a closer look at the numbersRepublicans are likelier than Democrats to blame federal officials for todays college graduation rates 34 percent of Republicans and 25 percent of Democrats point at them. Theres a small partisan difference on the student blame question Seventy-seven percent of Republicans and 68 percent of Democrats fault students heavily. Minorities are more flat than whites to blame professors and teachers for college graduation rates, with 40 percent of minorities but just 29 percent of whites doing so. Fifty-seven percent of minorities blame parents for college graduation rates, while just 40 percent of whites do.Sara Goldrick-Rab, assistant professor of educational policy studies and sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, said the results are deeply troubling and mean elite colleges and universities have succeeded in amusive blame from the mselves. Those supporting the completion agenda need to push back hard and emphasize the role colleges play in supporting or undermining student success, she said. Such a push back may not be necessary in Utah, however, judging from Sederburgs attitude Its clearly not just students faults. I think we have a significant role to play. After long emphasizing access to college, higher education policy debates have shifted only tardily to focusing on getting students through. The Obama administration has called for the United States to again lead the world in number of college graduates by 2020. The goal in Utah is to increase retention rates by 8 percent on average over the next decade, Sederburg said. The Utah System of Higher Educations 2020 Plan for Higher Education, found at www. higheredutah2020. org, contemplates several strategies to increase retention such as enhancing advising and intervention advising if a student is off track to graduate.Getting students into the right co urses is also important. Midterm feedback may give students a chance to correct their trajectory. Its a different approach if you are a Salt Lake Community College than if you are at the University of Utah, said Cameron Martin, the say-so of the commissioner for higher educations associate commissioner for economic development. Each institution has to look at its strategies to see what works for them. BYU, for example, encourages students to graduate by providing a clear map for each program of study. It also tries to help students understand what the credit limits are to enter each program. If students are in danger of exceeding the appropriate amount of attribute and have yet to declare a major, our University Advisement office will reach out to them to help provide further direction, said BYU spokesman Todd Hollingshead. The Bill & Melinda provide Foundation, Lumina Foundation and others have directed money and attention to states and colleges to improve completion rates, and several states are taking action. Stan Jones, president of Complete College America, which championed such efforts, disagreed that the poll spells rag for reform. This will play out like the high school dropout issue, he said. The more it becomes a subject of public discussion the more advances we will make on confronting the college dropout problem. Just over half of first-time students who entered college in 2003-04 had not earned a degree or credential within six years, the Education Department reported recently. Thats slightly worse than students who started in 1995-96. Experts caution it is tricky to measure success and compare graduation rates because todays older, less-traditional college tudent population takes more time to finish school and is harder to track. The AP-Stanford poll found most people were happy with the quality of higher education in their states. Despite severe budget cuts and spiraling tuition at many public four-year colleges, those schools received the highest marks Seventy-four percent in the poll called them excellent or good. But others institutions got strong marks, too Four-year private nonprofit colleges (71 percent), two-year public colleges (69 percent), private for-profit colleges (66 percent) and private for-profit trade schools (57 percent).Thats a rare glimpse at public opinion about for-profit colleges, which have been armed combat proposed regulations that would that would cut off federal aid. The poll also found overwhelming agreement that there is a link between the nations prosperity and the quality of its education system. Overall, 88 percent say economic prosperity and quality education are closely entwined. Nearly 80 percent said that having all Americans graduate from a two- or four-year college would help the economy.Yet most in the poll are unwilling to invest more in the nations school systems in order to obtain that economic payoff just 42 percent favor raising taxes to pay for better education. The poll was conducted September 23-30 by Abt SRBI Inc. It involved interviews on land line and cellular telephones with 1,001 adults nationwide, and has a margin of sampling error of plus or minus 3. 9 percentage points. Stanford Universitys participation was made possible by a grant from the Gates Foundation. Contributing Michael De Groote, Deseret News, and Alan Fram of the AP

Motorcycle Helmet law debate Essay

Across the united States, every year millions of license drivers choose to ride motorbikes rather than drive automobiles for a variety of reasons tenabilitys range from single pleasure to a much more(prenominal) cost effective way to travel. The commonplace cycle helmet natural law debate over the past forty yearn time has revolved around whether the national regime should adopt a normal helmet law that mandates all motorcyclists to put one across helmets at all times when riding to centralise societies economic cost, or whether the undivided rider should make believe the chastise to choose rather to wear or not wear a helmet.In 1967, nearly all States machineed a mandatory oecumenic helmet law in order to receive federal funds to repair and improve our Interstate Highways. formerly the 1966 matter Highway gum elastic figure out was imposed, the history of bike helmet legislation began. Americans have continuously debated over the balance between an individual s rights, the crush interest of the public and when the government should take measures to protect the masses of the United States from harm.Four out of tailfin Americans are in support of a worldwide helmet law, yet motorcyclists represent simply about two percent of all registered vehicles in the United States (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008). This suggest that a majority of supporters are either not motorcycle owners and/or seemed to have taken a utilitarianism cost and benefits analysis approach, which according to Michael Sandel many argue, that a help slightness in utilitarianism is that it fails to respect individual rights. Supporters believe that wearing a motorcycle helmet protects riders by proscribeing serious head injuries and dispirits mortality rates, which results in society saving an large deal of economic cost, such as taxes, insurance premiums and government funded healthcare expenses. Non-supporters, including myself a registered mot orcycle owner, argue that a popular helmet law is unconstitutional, as it violates our right to independence of Choice as written in our Bill of Rights. despite the tremendous amount of statistics, that claim motorcycle helmets may reduce head injuries and lower fatalities, as of now only twenty States and the District of Columbia currently have and impose a universal motorcycle helmet law, twenty-seven States that do enforce partial motorcycle helmet laws that are directed at riders under a certain age (usually 18) and three States (Illinois, Iowa, and New Hampshire) still currently have no helmet laws in engross (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008).In order to have a better understanding of the ratiocination of the universal motorcycle helmet law, you have to know the history of the legislation of the universal motorcycle helmet law. The beginning of motorcycle helmet legislation in the United States was when the 1966 National Highway Safety Act was originally created to generate special federal funding to States for our Interstate Highway System.However, in order for the States to receive funding, the federal government placed stipulations that influenced States to comply with guard laws that the federal government wanted to be in place. If the States did not comply, they would lose these funds (see Note a, b, c, d and e in Figure 1, Homer, Jenny and French, Michael 416. ) preceding to 1966, only three States (New York, Massachusetts, and Michigan) had motorcycle helmet use laws, even though motorcycle helmet usage began as early the 1920s by Motorcycle racers as a form of protection (Jones, Marian Moser, and Ronald Bayer 209).By 1967, after the federal standard for State Highway Safety Programs was implemented requiring States to have a universal motorcycle helmet law in effect in order to qualify for additional federal funds All but three States (California, New Hampshire and Illinois) complied by implementing and enforcing a unive rsal helmet law that required all motorcycle riders to wear helmets, so they would qualify to receive the additional Interstate Highway funding. Then, By 1975, 47 states and the District of Columbia had adopted universal helmet laws.This trend reversed dramatically in the latter half of 1975 when copulation acquiesced to the pressure exerted by groups such as ABATE, and amended the Act to remove the contingency of federal highway funds on universal helmet laws. The amendment led to the repeal of universal coverage in 27 states shortly thereafter (Derrick, Allison J. , and Lee D. Faucher 229). Between 1989 and 1994, Congress once again began to try and influence the States to mandate a universal motorcycle helmet law by implementing the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, besides known as ISTEA.ISTEA provided special incentive grants to states with both universal motorcycle helmet laws and passenger vehicle refuge belt use laws. A state qualified for a first- year grant by having these two laws in effect. In subsequent years, the state also was required to exceed minimum motorcycle helmet and guard belt use levels (helmet use of 75 percent in the second year and 85 percent in the tertiary year). Twenty-three states and the District of Columbia received grants for one or more of the fiscal years 1992, 1993, and 1994 for which the grants were authorized (R. G. Ulmer and D.F. Preusser 5).The ISTEA Act was much more effect on the universal safety belt law rather than the universal helmet laws States were more successful in implementing and convincing Americans to comply with safety privy belt laws rather than a universal motorcycle helmet law. I agree with Charles Umbenhauer of USA Today who believes Unlike seat belts, helmets represent a separate purchase. Helmet laws, on the other hand, are a manifestation of societys belief that its members lack the wisdom to make decisions about soulfulnessal safety and must(prenominal) and so be s ubjected to arbitrary laws. Between 1995 and 2001, Congress implemented the National Highway System Designation Act. This Act repealed the ISTEA largely in response to lobbying by the improve and very organized motorcycle groups, such as American Motorcycle Association AMA, Motorcycle Riders Foundation, and American Bikers Aimed Toward Education ABATE. The lobbying of these groups resulted in five States (Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana and Texas) repealing their universal helmet requirements.According to the Congressional Record- Senate on June 20, 1995 that after very much debate over mandating a universal motorcycle helmet law, US Congress decided that States would be required to implement motorcycle rider education programs instead of a universal helmet law to receive funding. Congress acted in agreement to Aristotle belief that Legislators make the citizens good by forming habits in them, and this is the wish of every legislator, and those who do not effect it miss the ir mark, and it is this that a good constitution differs from a bad one (Sandel, Michael 198).Of the current thirty States that allow adult riders to choose rather they prefer to wear helmets or not, three States require the rider must be 18 years or older Five States require the rider must be 21 years or older The stay nineteen States have other stipulations that require riders to either complete motorcycle training courses, have a helmet in possession, but not required to wear the helmet and/or a minimum of $10,000. 00 of medical insurance that is specifically for injuries resulting from motorcycle crashes (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008).In November 2010, supporters led by safety groups and the insurance industry began to lobby that all States that currently do not have and/or enforce a universal motorcycle helmet law should implement a universal motorcycle helmet law Aristotle would have most likely supported this act, as he stated The purpose of politics is nothing less than to enable people to develop their distinctive human capacities and virtuesto deliberate about the common good, to acquire practical judgment, to share in self-government, to care for the fate of the residential area as a whole (Sandel, Michael 194).While on the other hand, universal helmet law opponents like Congressman Jim Sensenbrenner that stated It is the mull of Congress to defend the independence and individual responsibilities that motorcycle riders across the nation enjoy as they travel the open roads of America, and Mr. Stricklands plan greatly concerns me as it is not the job of the federal government to create one-size- fits-all helmet laws. Mr.Strickland appears to be intent on pursuing all means possible to enact mandatory helmet laws either at the federal level or by violating the principles of the 10th Amendment and bullying the States into enacting mandatory helmet laws. Motorcyclists under the leadership of very organized motorcycle groups in t he United States, since 1967 have act to lobbying for repeal in the twenty States that currently have a universal helmet law.Most Americans agree there is a need to create laws that set limits and regulations in order to have a civilized society However, motorcyclist believe this can be done without the government violating our individual Freedom of Choice, which allows a person to decide to take risk of exposures as long as they are only risking their own person and their property. According to libertarian theory of rights, Even if riding a motorcycle without a helmet is reckless, and even if helmet laws save lives and hinder devastating injuries, libertarians argue that such laws violate the rights of an individual to decide what risks to assume.As long as no third parties are harmed, and as long as motorcycle riders are responsible for their own medical bills, the state has no rights to dictate what risks they may take with their bodies and lives (Sandel, Michael 60). Despite the overwhelming evidence, some motorcyclists (including myself) refuse to wear helmets all the time when riding and oppose universal helmet laws because universal helmet laws represent government interference and these laws impede an individuals Freedom of Choice. Most Americans would agree that wearing a motorcycle helmet is probably one of the safest pieces of protective outerwear when riding a motorcycle, but opponents of a universal helmet law, are disagreeing with the idea that the government should not mandate laws that take away an individuals right to choose what to wear based on the Ninth Amendment The Ninth Amendment to the US Constitution says no law shall be enacted that regulates the individuals freedom to choose his personal actions and mode of dress so long as it does not in any way affect the life, liberty, and happiness of others.We are being forced to wear a particular type of clothes because we choose to ride motorcycles (Jones, Marian Moser, and Ronald Bayer 212 ). The United States Constitution is the foundation for the laws written in the United States. Our founding fathers created the constitution to establish a government for the people of the United States of America, but it does not grant you individual rights. The Bill of Rights was created to grant and protector your individual rights by limiting powers of government.A universal helmet law is an act of means ends paternalism based on Immanuel Kants distinction made between hypothetical and categorical imperatives. Means-ends paternalism mirrors a hypothetical imperative, because it essentially takes the form of requiring people to do things that leave behind lead to the satisfaction of their own goals. States Legislatures have passed a universal motorcycle helmet law in the past and justified by claiming it would prevent people from exposure of serious head injury, which would cause financial and emotional harm to others, not just to the riders.Those who continue to support and lo bby for a universal helmet law, make the claim that helmets are effective in reducing head injuries, which society bears the be of non-helmet riders injuries, thereby establishing a public interest. By requiring the rider to use reasonable safety equipment, such as a motorcycle helmet, it prevents harm to others, not just to the motorcyclist. If the motorcyclist chooses not to wear a helmet, they may increase the risk that when an accident occurs, it could possible result in more severe injuries.The riders is guarantee government funded medical assistant under the United States Constitution, so the cost of those accidents will become a burden not only on the riders, but also on taxpayers, because not all riders have sufficient insurance or savings to pay for all of their medical expenses. According to John Stuart Mill, subject to background duties of justice and fair contribution, state coercion is justified only to prevent or punish acts causing harms to other persons, not harms t o self.Harm to others can be found in almost any type of behavior corroboratory harm is subject to limitless expansion. Those who support apparently paternalistic policies identify superficial harms to others, such as financial burdens associated with risky behaviors. Examples of this type of behavior would be the costs of emergency response and health care for injuries that could have possibility been prevented by wearing a motorcycle helmet. According to NHTSA Report to Congress regarding the Benefits of Safety Belts and Motorcycle Helmets society would be able to save cost by mandating a universal helmet law.An analysis of linked data from CODES with universal helmet laws showed that without the helmet law, the total duplication inpatient charges due to brain injury would have almost doubled from $2,325,000 to $4,095,000 A number of studies have compared hospital costs for helmeted and un-helmeted motorcyclists involved in traffic crashes. These studies have revealed that un-h elmeted riders involved in crashes are less likely to have insurance and more likely to have higher hospital costs than helmeted riders involved in similar crashes Estimates that motorcycle helmet use deliver $1.3 billion in 2002 alone and an additional $853 million would have been saved if all motorcyclists involved in fatal crashes had worn helmets Estimates that motorcycle helmet use saved $19. 5 billion in economic costs from 1984 through 2002 and an additional $14. 8 billion would have been saved if all motorcyclists had worn helmets during the same period CODES study also found that brain injury cases were more than twice as costly as non-brain injury cases for the one-year period studied. Among the un-helmeted motorcycle inpatients, charges for those suffering brain injuries were 2.25 times higher than for those without brain injuries. Long-term costs were not included. (See EXHIBIT 13 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 1996). Both sides of the debate present st rong arguments that support their reasonings regarding a universal motorcycle helmet law. Supporters of a Universal motorcycle helmet law continually argue that, a universal helmet law would save not only health care costs it would in addition also lower taxes, insurance rates and save lives according to NHTSAs reports.Meanwhile, those who oppose a universal motorcycle helmet law believe Despite the strong evidence implicating repeal of helmet use laws as the cause of the large recent increases in fatally hurt motorcyclists, the American Motorcyclist Association claimed that after an examination of available current data on motorcycle accidents, fatalities, registration and licensure, in addition to such relevant topics as weather conditions, we find that the NHTSA was altogether premature in its judgment .. . in faulting the widespread repeal of helmet use laws. The Motorcycle Safety Foundation has also tardily suggested that the NHTSA has selected information supporting helmet use laws and disregarded information to the contrary (Watson, Geoffrey S. , Paul L. Zador, and Alan Wilks 580). NHTSA, the insurance industry, and motorcyclist groups use FARS and GES Auxiliary Datasets, which are one-to-one mappings of the Accident, Vehicle, and Person files.When conducting research you have the ability to analyze the data in either its full detail as coded or only the data you want to, it depends on the safety tell apart that is being questioned and the results that you which to obtain, which can led to biases results. By passing a universal motorcycle helmet law, the Federal Government is suggesting that the average adult motorcyclist does not have tolerable common sense to make their own choices, therefore they are required to mandate or should I say dictate proper behavior for a motorcyclist.The best solution is to educate both motorcyclist and automobile drivers through safety training that will help prevent motorcycle accidents, rather than mandating a univ ersal motorcycle helmet law that only violates the rights of the motorcyclist right to choice or not to choice to wear a helmet. It is the history of motorcycle legislation debate that demonstrates to me, American motorcyclist have placed a value on their Freedom of Choice and have been successful over the past four decades communicating that they value their Freedom of Choice to the government For that I am thankful.Motorcyclists in general, enjoy the sense of freedom that we associate with riding and by passing a universal motorcycle helmet law it would strip away that sensation from us. As, when I am riding a motorcycle without a helmet my senses come alive, that includes my sense of freedom It is the power of the solarise warming my skin, the touch of the cooling breeze across my face, the aroma of the salty ocean air or the giant redwoods, the sound of thunder roaring at a lower place me, which allows me to have the sense of flying freely.Works Cited Derrick, Allison J. , and Lee D.Faucher. Motorcycle helmets and rider safety A legislative crisis. ledger of Public health Policy 30. 2 (2009) 226-242. 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Sensenbrenner introduces resolution to defend the rights of motorcycle riders. FDCH Press Releases (n. d. ) Military & Government Collection. EBSCO. Web. 20 Oct. 2011. Sullum, Jacob. Freedom Riders. Reason 37. 6 (2005) 40. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO. Web. 01 Oct. 2011. Charles C. , Umbenhauer. Its our right to decide. USA Today n. d. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 01 Oct. 2011. R. G. Ulmer and D. F. Preusser.Evaluation of the Repeal of Motorcycle Helmet Laws in Kentucky and Louisiana, DOT HS 809 530 Washington DC National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (October 2003) Web 12, Oct. 2011, www. NHTSA. dot. gov. Sandel, Michael. Justice Whats the Right Thing to do? New York, Farrar, Straus, and Groux, 2009. United States Department of Transportation. National Health Traffic Safety. Report to Congress Benefits of Safety Belts and Motorcycle Helme ts DOT HS 808 347, Washington DC National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (February 1996) Web 2, Oct.2011, www. NHTSA. dot. gov. United States Department of Transportation. National Health Traffic Safety. Traffic Safety Facts DOT HS 810 887W, Washington DC National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (January 2008) Web 12, Oct. 2011, www. NHTSA. dot. gov. Watson, Geoffrey S. , Paul L. Zador, and Alan Wilks. The Repeal of Helmet Use Laws and Increased Motorcyclist Mortality In the United States, 1975-1978. American Journal of Public Health 70. 6 (1980) 579. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 4 Oct. 2011.